“Missionary Influence and Indigenous Response: The Inpui Experience”

Introduction

India has a vast land in the Northeastern part, inhabited by thousands of ethnic groups classified as tribes. The Inpui is one of the indigenous Naga tribes in Manipur, and is a minority tribe who are exploited and oppressed by the majority group. This writing reflects on how missionaries directly and indirectly influenced the society and the status of the Inpui before and after the arrival of Christianity. The impact of Christian missions on issues such as identity crisis, cultural and political entanglements, and other challenges faced by the Inpui community is addressed. The paper further explores how the Inpui community encountered the post-colonial shift and adapted to indigenization and its response.

1.      Arrival of Christianity and Early Missionary Work in the Inpui Region (Manipur)

Pioneer missionaries William Pettigrew, Dr. Galen George Crozier, and Rev. U.M. Fox introduced Christianity to Manipur. Pettigrew began working in Manipur in 1894 but faced resistance from Hindu groups, leading him to shift to the Tangkhul community in the hills.[1] He joined the American Baptist Foreign Missionary Union (ABFMU) and had significant success, including the baptism of 12 students in 1901 and the conversion of Namrijinang Maipak from the Inpui tribe in 1914. Pettigrew assigned Namrijinang to undertake evangelistic work westward of the Naga hills in 1919, which was his native place. Along with Dr. G.G. Crozier, some Inpui villages were evangelized, and after nine years of evangelizing, five members from Houchong village accepted Christ, leading to the establishment of the first Church of the Inpui tribe, known as Pungmon Chingchen Baptist Church, in 1927. Kuki evangelist Pakho Sitlhou superintended the church as teacher cum evangelist under Manipur Baptist Association No. 4.[2] Several other villages continued to accept Christianity, and today all the Inpui villages are Christian villages.

Some of the ABFMU missionaries’ contributions to the community of Manipur include: like William Carey of the Serampore mission, Pettigrew also contributed to literature, such as writing a Manipuri primer and grammar, an English-Bengali-Manipuri Dictionary, helping develop a common language for the Tangkhul community, translating the New Testament into Tangkhul and Manipuri dialects, and starting schools in Imphal and Ukhrul.[3]  ABFMU sent Dr. G.G. Crozier and his wife to help Pettigrew by establishing a mission center in Kangpokpi consisting of a hospital,[4] hostel, and school. The formation of Christian organizations such as the Manipur Baptist Convention (MBC) has led to significant growth, with 29 associations and 1471 churches under MBC today.

 

2. Mission Influence in Religion, Socio-economic and Political Issues, and Educational Reformation of the Inpui Tribe

2.1 Religion

Inpui people believed in the existence of Supreme beings and also the existence of numerous spirits. According to Swami Bhajananda, “Religion is the underlying sentiment that informs the beliefs, customs, and practices of the people. Religion is not the product of culture but the producer of culture.”[5] This statement appeared to be true in the culture and tradition of the Inpui tribe, as the festivals, worship, and practices are pointed towards the spirits of the field, village, forest, rivers, and the spirit of death. The rituals and offerings are conducted to appease the spirit of nature, believing that success will cause no harm to the people.[6] This system of tribal worship has been confined to the indigenous people. Similar to this, tribal religions are also practiced in Africa, among Australian aborigines, American Indians, Burma, Mongolia, Siberia, Indonesia, and various indigenous tribal groups in India.[7]

The impacts of globalization and the gospel have greatly affected the Nagas and other Mongolian communities.[8] After the advent of Christianity, most of the evil practices and belief in the spirit were non-measurably impacted in various aspects by the Gospel on the lives of the societies as a whole and on the values of commitment towards the individual and the community. The new identity and the belief of Christianity have shaped the epistemologies of the people and awakened the real value of a person's lives, where there is only and sufficient offering of Christ the Son to God the Father, and there is no longer a need for offering sacrifices by killing animals or shedding blood.[9]  

2.2 Social and Political Entanglements

The Inpui tradition and culture are rich in adventure and vibrancy, reflected in festivals like Karing-Ngei, Mangeipui, Nabitnu Ngei, and Muliangnu Ngei, which feature feasting, sports, and music.[10] However, the traditional Inpui legal system imposed severe punishments on culprits, such as immediate expulsion from the village or the destruction of their homes by cutting it into half.[11] The introduction of Christianity transformed these practices, replacing inhumane disciplinary methods with a focus on forgiveness and support for the needy.

According to the 2011 Census, the Inpui tribe had a population of 4,762 (2,398 males and 2,364 females).[12] The population decline can be traced back to the 18th century when Shantidas Gosai, a Hindu missionary, introduced the concept of ‘purity and impurity’ (known as ‘amang-asheng’ in the Meitei dialect), leading to the practice of untouchability.[13] The Meitei king Garibniwaj propagated this concept, resulting in the marginalization of Inpui villages in the valley, such as Changangei, Yurembam, Tamphagei, and Pantilong. This marginalization, combined with other factors like wars and pandemics, contributed to the decline in the Inpui population. Today, most Inpui villages are situated in the hills and face exclusion and discrimination from other communities.

Identity issues have long been a struggle for the Inpui people. Historically, the Inpui and Rongmei were referred to by the same name, “Kabui,” but in 2012, the Government of India recognized them as distinct scheduled tribes.[14] The decolonization process in the second half of the 20th century sparked a renewed awareness of cultural identity and self-awareness among the Inpui.[15] Christian missions have played a significant role in empowering the Inpui community through organizations like the Inpui (Kabui) Naga Baptist Churches Association and the Inpui Naga Union. These organizations have helped elevate the status of the Inpui people, reducing discrimination and exploitation. Recognizing indigenous agency has also shifted perceptions, [16] acknowledging the active participation of indigenous people in the spread of the gospel.

2.3 Educational and Literature Formation

            Inpui people were the focus of cultivation and livelihood, which created a mindset of negligence for education, and there was no proper institution nearby. Christianity introduced the interest in education, and by that time, there was a government school instituted in the center of the Inpui community. The introduction of songs and hymnals, which were translated by Kuki evangelist Pakho Silthou, captures the mind of the converts to read and sing the lyrics.[17] After decades, the Christian Organization or unit took up the initiative to have the Christian Literature Society and further published a songbook and translated the bible. In May 1977, a private committee under the leadership of Kh. Kadimunang has started a high school called ‘Rose English School.’ For several decades, Christian missions have guided and mobilized the people, and today, education is shaping society to advance with globalization.  

3. Indigenous Response

The historiography and mission narratives have predominantly been authored by white colonizers, reflecting Eurocentric biases and often marginalizing the voices and experiences of indigenous peoples.[18] This dominance is particularly evident in regions like Northeast India. Another significant factor is colonial missiology, shaped by European Christian tradition and philosophy, which influenced colonial theology and sought to introduce a specific type of spiritual expression to diverse cultures.[19]  In contrast, the American Baptist Foreign Missionary Union (ABFMU) follows three principles of self-governing, self-supporting, and self-propagating. Consequently, most Inpui churches are self-governed, financially self-sufficient, and actively involved in evangelism without external support.[20] Despite the absence of foreign aid, the legacy of Western missionaries continues to influence their focus on evangelization and salvific mission.

The new Christian identity has fostered tribal solidarity among the Inpui. The development of literature, starting with songs and hymns, has unified the community and helped bridge regional linguistic variations, promoting mutual understanding. This sense of unity prevents further assimilation into other tribes. Education has also played a crucial role by enabling the documentation and preservation of oral history and life stories, providing insight into the culture, traditions, and beliefs of the community.[21]  

Colonialism and Christian missions brought several benefits, including architectural contributions like church designs and the introduction of valuable crops like tea, potatoes, and rice. In India, indigenous communities have been granted certain privileges regarding land tenure, community governance, and ecosystem interdependence.[22] These privileges have empowered the Inpui community to reclaim and celebrate their cultural heritage while working to preserve and promote it.

Conclusion

The arrival of Christianity in the Inpui region of Manipur, India, marked a significant turning point in the tribe’s history. The missionaries’ influence extended beyond spiritual realms, impacting the community’s social, economic, and cultural fabric. This study has explored the complex dynamics of missionary influence and indigenous response, highlighting how Inpui people have navigated the challenges and opportunities presented by Christianity. This study examines the impact of Christian missionaries on the Inpui tribe, a minority group in Manipur, India. It explores the history of missionary work in the region, the influence of Christianity on Inpui society, and the community’s response to these changes. The paper argues that the missionaries’ efforts had a profound impact on the Inpui people, shaping their identity, culture, and social structures. The key findings of this study are multifaceted. Firstly, Christianity has played a significant role in shaping the Inpui people’s identity, providing a sense of unity and solidarity among the community. Secondly, the missionaries’ influence has led to significant changes in Inpui society, including the adoption of new social norms, cultural practices, and values. Thirdly, Christian missions have contributed to the development of education and literature among the Inpui people, enabling them to preserve their history, culture, and traditions. Additionally, the Inpui community has responded to missionary influence in complex ways, adopting and adapting Christian practices while maintaining their indigenous identity and cultural heritage. Finally, the recognition of the Inpui tribe as a distinct scheduled tribe by the Indian government has empowered the community, enabling them to assert their rights and preserve their cultural heritage.

References:

Books:

Hrangkhuma, F. History of Christianity in India. Bangalore: Theology Book Trust, 2018.

Inka, Merachao. The Inpui who Followed the Trial of Mithun. Imphal: Merachao Inka, 2022.

Khumba, Akhown. A Brief History of Pungmon Baptist Church. Imphal: Golden Jubilee Publication, 1980.

Khumba, K. Alung, editor. The Inpui Nagas: Traditional Culture and Christianity. Imphal: K. ALung Khumba & M. Khamningkham Khuba, 2012.

Lolly, R. R. The Baptist Church in Manipur. Imphal: Modern Printers, 1985.

Maring, M. K. Koshilning. Tribal Religion. Bangalore: Omega Book World, 2019.

Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation. London: Roultledge, 1992.

Miri, Sujata. Religion and Society of North East India. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1980. 

Mundadan, A. M. Indian Christian: Search for Identity and Struggle for Autonomy. Bangalore: Dharmaram Publications, 1984.

Muthabathula, Sunny. “From Colonial Gaze to Indigenous Voices,” Methodological Issues and Research Design in missiology, edited by. Vinod S. Sailus. Delhi: Christian World Imprints, 2024.

Samuel, R. Jijin Raja. “Methodological Challenges in Writing Mission History from Indigenous Perspective.” Methodologiocal Issues and Research Design in Missiology. Edited by Vinod S. Sailus. Delhi: Christian World Imprints, 2024.

S. Dharmaraj, Jacob. “Nineteenth-Century Missions Theology and Indian Christian Identity,” in Issues in Contemporary Christian Mission. Edited by K. S. Imchen. Kolkata: SCEPTRE, 2013.

Zeliang, Elungkiebe. A History of Manipur Baptist Convention. Imphal: Manipur Baptist Convention, 2005.

 

Internet Sources:

Noboy Nameirakpam Singh, “The Life and Ministry of Rev. William Pettigrew.” Accessed on 15^th September 2025, https://equipindianchurches.com

Sabrang, “How Hinduism brought casteism to Manipur.” Accessed on 15 Sept. 2025, https://sabrangibdia.in/how-hinduism-brought-casteism-manipur/amp/

 

Articles:                    

Bhajananda, Swami. “Ramakrishna Monasticism and the Challenging Hindu Ethos,” Dharma III, no. 2 (April-June 1978): 140-156.

Gachui, Rangya. “Negotiating with the Spirit World: An Anthropological Enquiry on the Belief System of the Inpui Tribe, Manipur,” ACADEMICIA: An Internationa Multidisciplinary Research Journal 15, no. 6 (June 2025): 1-5.  

Hrudayraj, Bala Kiran Kumar. “Grassroots Activism and Representational Politics as Integral to Evangelization: A Christian Response,” Asian Horizons 18, no. 3 (September 2024): 463-480.

Interviews:

Aisha, Kh. Personal Interview on 11^th September 2025.

Khumba, A. L. Personal Interview on 11^th September 2025.

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[1] Noboy Nameirakpam Singh, “The Life and Ministry of Rev. William Pettigrew,” accessed on 15^th September 2025, https://equipindianchurches.com

[2] Akhown Khumba, ed. A Brief History of Pungmon Baptist Church (Imphal: Golden Jubilee Publication, 1980), 24.

[3] R. R. Lolly, The Baptist Church in Manipur (Imphal: Modern Printers, 1985), 20-21.

[4] Elungkiebe Zeliang, A History of Manipur Baptist Convention (Imphal: Manipur Baptist Convention, 2005), 36.

[5] Swami Bhajananda, “Ramakrishna Monasticism and the Challenging Hindu Ethos,” Dharma III, no. 2 (April-June 1978): 148.

[6] K. Alung Khumba, ed., The Inpui Nagas: Traditional Culture and Christianity (Imphal: K. ALung Khumba & M. Khamningkham Khuba, 2012), 30.

[7] Sujata Miri, Religion and Society of North East India (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1980), 69.  

[8] M. K. Koshilning Maring, Tribal Religion (Bangalore: Omega Book World, 2019), 116.

[9] A. L. Khumba, Personal Interview on 11^th September 2025.

[10] Merachao Inka, The Inpui who Followed the Trial of Mithun (Imphal: Merachao Inka, 2022), 103.

[11] Kh. Aisha, Personal Interview on 11^th September 2025.

[12] Rangya Gachui, “Negotiating with the Spirit World: An Anthropological Enquiry on the Belief System of the Inpui Tribe, Manipur,” ACADEMICIA: An Internationa Multidisciplinary Research Journal 15, no. 6 (June 2025): 1.  

[13] Sabrang, “How Hinduism brought casteism to Manipur,” last modified on 14 Dec. 2018, accessed on 15 Sept. 2025, https://sabrangibdia.in/how-hinduism-brought-casteism-manipur/amp/ 

[14] Inka, The Inpui who Followed the Trial of Mithun, 3.

[15] A. M. Mundadan, Indian Christian: Search for Identity and Struggle for Autonomy (Bangalore: Dharmaram Publications, 1984), 195.

[16] Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Roultledge, 1992), 85.

[17] Kh. Aisha, Personal Interview on 11^th September 2025.

[18] Sunny Muthabathula, “From Colonial Gaze to Indigenous Voices,” Methodological Issues and Research Design in missiology, ed. Vinod S. Sailus (Delhi: Christian World Imprints, 2024), 149.

[19] Jacob S. Dharmaraj, “Nineteenth-Century Missions Theology and Indian Christian Identity,” in Issues in Contemporary Christian Mission, ed. K. S. Imchen (Kolkata: SCEPTRE, 2013), 117.

[20] F. Hrangkhuma, History of Christianity in India (Bangalore: Theology Book Trust, 2018), 131.

[21] Bala Kiran Kumar Hrudayraj, “Grassroots Activism and Representational Politics as Integral to Evangelization: A Christian Response,” Asian Horizons 18, no. 3 (September 2024): 467.

[22] R. Jijin Raja Samuel, “Methodological Challenges in Writing Mission History rom Indigenous Perspective,” Methodologiocal Issues and Research Design in Missiology, ed. Vinod S. Sailus (Delhi: Christian World Imprints, 2024), 149.

Author: Salem Khumba