Re-imagining the Existence of Two Inpui Villages: Kabuikhullen and Haochong
The paper briefly looks into the existence of the two oldest Inpui villages. Here, the author will not argue which of the two is older, instead draws similarities between their socio-political system and geographical features for surviving since time immemorial. The sudden, complete relocation and subsequent desertion of Proper (old) Kabuikhullen due to the 4th January 2016 earthquake led to a series of cascading issues. As written historical accounts are limited with regards to Kabuikhullen, this paper has depended largely on the oral history and hence a comprehensive insight might not be possible but nonetheless will give an overview and general information for further discourse.
The discussion in this paper can be contested as oral stories have variation even among the villagers and there are few elders who can clearly remember and articulate on such histories.
Introduction
I am gonna pick up the pieces and build a Lego house. If things go wrong we can knock it down (Ed Sheeran, Lego house, 2011).
So far no historian has contested the origin of Inpui from a mystical place Ramting Kabin to their first settlement in Kadingmon and then to Bakhiangmon, further to Ba-ankungzwan (Achun, 1995). And due to limited discourse on history and culture within the Inpui society, no forward movement is visible except for some study conducted by theological students. This article is an attempt to trace, record and further the historical discourse by revisiting the two prominent Inpui villages; Kabuikhullen and Haochong. According to the journey of migration from Makhel (Bakhiangmon) –Makui-Kabuikhllen, there is no denying that Kabuikhllen was the first village which was established as a distinct tribe and identity; i.e., Inpui (see Alung, 2002). Though in times to come, this migration route can be contested or debunked due to lack of historical and empirical evidence.
Here the author would like to throw some light if at all a new narrative is possible. Shimmi (1988) wrote that Zeliangrong has a similar legend to those of the tribes-Maram, Tangkhul, Sema, and Mao. And their ancestors probably went southwards and settled at Maram and thereafter gradually spread out to the villages such as Chawangphungning, Lungphou, Makuilong, and Kaobru. While R.B.Pemberton suggest the "Kabuis (this might be referring to Rongmei) settled on many hills ranges between Cachar and Manipur. The Kabui, a sub-tribe of the Zeliangrong exhibits material culture to prove that the main tribe migrated from the west." But the presence of Inpui village(s) in Jiri-Cachar cannot be ruled out. T.C. Hodson (1911) wrote, “there is ample evidence, historical and traditional to show that their expulsion for the hills to the south is comparatively recent, I have stumbled upon ruins of large villages in the jungles of South Nongba, and learn that they were the ruins of Kabui villages”.
There are some oral historical accounts from Kabuikhullen which indicates that there was migration from Kabuikhullen to the west. And this indication can be further scope for research as Puiluan, a Rongmei village name has some connection with the Inpuis. In this study of origin and migration, the case of Nambashis (a collection of four villagers), considered to the brother of Inpuis who is settled in the Southern part of Ukhrul district has to be incorporated (the route to migration according to Tangkhul history is twofold). And this can offer a more conclusive end to the search for the authentic route of separation and migration.
Here the author would like to throw some light if at all a new narrative is possible. Shimmi (1988) wrote that Zeliangrong has a similar legend to those of the tribes-Maram, Tangkhul, Sema, and Mao. And their ancestors probably went southwards and settled at Maram and thereafter gradually spread out to the villages such as Chawangphungning, Lungphou, Makuilong, and Kaobru. While R.B.Pemberton suggest the "Kabuis (this might be referring to Rongmei) settled on many hills ranges between Cachar and Manipur. The Kabui, a sub-tribe of the Zeliangrong exhibits material culture to prove that the main tribe migrated from the west." But the presence of Inpui village(s) in Jiri-Cachar cannot be ruled out. T.C. Hodson (1911) wrote, “there is ample evidence, historical and traditional to show that their expulsion for the hills to the south is comparatively recent, I have stumbled upon ruins of large villages in the jungles of South Nongba, and learn that they were the ruins of Kabui villages”.
There are some oral historical accounts from Kabuikhullen which indicates that there was migration from Kabuikhullen to the west. And this indication can be further scope for research as Puiluan, a Rongmei village name has some connection with the Inpuis. In this study of origin and migration, the case of Nambashis (a collection of four villagers), considered to the brother of Inpuis who is settled in the Southern part of Ukhrul district has to be incorporated (the route to migration according to Tangkhul history is twofold). And this can offer a more conclusive end to the search for the authentic route of separation and migration.
Kabuikhullen: A Village Lost in Time
There are some monuments of historical importance and artifacts in Proper Kabuikhullen and sadly some were destroyed during the early years of conversion to Christianity. In the absence of written records, lack of elders who can recount oral history and narratives, and lack of scientific tools, an attempt to collect historical data and facts seem far-fetched. However, even if there are no historical dates, the cultural and historical attachment to such monuments and artifacts remains strong. Kabuikhullen is a village which is about 15 km from the national highway 37 (Noney-Lukhambi). There was no proper road connectivity thereby isolating the village from the rest of the world for a very long time.
The construction of motor able road is very recent. Kabuikhullen rests on the top mountain table made the village a strategic location and the availability of all necessary resources within the vicinity of the village sustained the villages for so long. The village area is enough to accommodate around 100 households to the maximum. According to legend, the village expanded well below the lower ridges but due to paucity of space, people decided to disperse to other locations (Kabuikhullen villagers migrated eastward to Haochong range and to the west as well but as there is no recorded Inpui village in the west so far, a fair assumption can be made that if at all the villagers ventured towards the west, the people might have safely assimilated with the majority community depending on the locations and its environment. A concern that some Inpuis are living in Silchar and Jiri area can be further studied.
The construction of motor able road is very recent. Kabuikhullen rests on the top mountain table made the village a strategic location and the availability of all necessary resources within the vicinity of the village sustained the villages for so long. The village area is enough to accommodate around 100 households to the maximum. According to legend, the village expanded well below the lower ridges but due to paucity of space, people decided to disperse to other locations (Kabuikhullen villagers migrated eastward to Haochong range and to the west as well but as there is no recorded Inpui village in the west so far, a fair assumption can be made that if at all the villagers ventured towards the west, the people might have safely assimilated with the majority community depending on the locations and its environment. A concern that some Inpuis are living in Silchar and Jiri area can be further studied.
The local name of Kabuikhulen is Lwanjaang whereas the name Kabuikhullen (Kabui-Inpui, Khullen-village) was coined by a Meitei King. The king on his visit to the village erected a stone to commemorate the event which is still preserved till today. There is an interesting incident attach to it narrated by elders, where the Meitei King asked only chicken intestine to be served to him but the villagers were unable to meet his demand so they made earthworm curry instead, which taste was liked by the king. The villagers also pay taxes to Meitei king like any other Inpui villages (some in the form of banana leaves, cotton, etc(Here further input is required).
The village has very limited contact with the far-off people, but there seems to be interaction in the form of war known locally as inthimraan, an act of headhunting. The villagers were known to be very fierce. Apart from its war with the neighboring villages, wars with other neighboring tribes were common and some are well recorded in folk songs. One such warfare was with Ritiang (Liangmei) village. In this war, many Kabuikhullen villagers were killed and vice versa. Here is one such rendition sung at Haochong “ Ramthat hung ngo Ritiang rwan dinn ga, Kumaipana 'that hung naye. Hung karang, nang hung kasang ngaak o, hung ngian mak o aniram Pantong inmwan saye’’, a free translation goes “bring the body of Ritiang villagers, they are bringing the dead body, come home early, come early and sing the song, Pantong (Haochong) village is beautiful.” This seems to suggest the villagers assisted each other or Haochong also fought a similar war with the same village. This can also be referring to different village belonging to the same community.
The inter-tribe rivalry and its war were so intense but the neighboring villages were unable to defeat Kabuikhullen in many of its attempts as the village was safely located on the mountaintop. In any narration of Naga tribe’s history, headhunting and showmanship are something which every Naga is proud of. And war or headhunting can be intra-tribal and inter-tribal but not between clans. In one of the oral account, one Liangmei village of Manipur seeks the assistance of Tapuan (Liangmei) village in Nagaland.
So, Tapuan villagers came to assist but failed in their attempt, instead of going for the direct confrontation they killed a lady working in the jhum field and took the head as war bounty. This long forgotten history was revived recently as Tapuan villagers failed to progress or develop. A supernatural intervention of sort, the spirit/visioners told the Tapuan Church to go to Kabuikhullen and reconcile. A reconciliation meeting was conducted not long ago. And some oral historical accounts narrated by elders from Kabuikhullen revealed that the enemies were made to rest their head on a long log and were beheaded. Such fierce treatment made other villagers seldom go for war or attack Kabuikhullen.
So, Tapuan villagers came to assist but failed in their attempt, instead of going for the direct confrontation they killed a lady working in the jhum field and took the head as war bounty. This long forgotten history was revived recently as Tapuan villagers failed to progress or develop. A supernatural intervention of sort, the spirit/visioners told the Tapuan Church to go to Kabuikhullen and reconcile. A reconciliation meeting was conducted not long ago. And some oral historical accounts narrated by elders from Kabuikhullen revealed that the enemies were made to rest their head on a long log and were beheaded. Such fierce treatment made other villagers seldom go for war or attack Kabuikhullen.
The practices of headhunting originated from a superstition that the increase in soul matter led to agricultural property and rise in population (Hussain, 1988). But the introduction of Christianity has transformed the socio-political and cultural landscape of the villagers. An important institution of the yore like the Morung has been replaced by the church, youth clubs, and schools. And in the process, important stone monuments were destructed emanating from the fear of evil spirit propagated by the missionaries and in some cases, the stones which acted as a resting place, memorial stone or guard place were used for the construction of public buildings like schools, community hall and even private residences as such monuments seem lost their relevance due to the arrival of new cultural settings.
The only basic infrastructure in Proper Kabuikhullen is the primary school and the nearest health facility is the Physical Health Sub Center at Thingra under Haochong Physical Health Centre. The village has no trained nurse and to substitute modern medicine traditional knowledge based on herbs and plants is used.
Haochong: The Western Gate of Manipur
Haochong village is situated in the easternmost part of Tamenglong district and aptly called the Western Gate of Manipur by the Meitei king. The village literally means "Jump to Hao (tribal) land" which was given by the legendary king of Manipur Meidingu Nongda Lairen Pakhangba (33AD-154 AD). The local name for the village is Pantong, which was derived from a place called Kapantong. The village is regarded as one of the oldest villages in Manipur which has been continuously settled since time immemorial. The exact date of establishment of the village is not known yet historical data recorded and available in the royal chronicles of Manipur like Cheitharol Kumbaba and Ningthourol Kumbaba date the existence of the village during the reign of Meidingu Naothingkhong (663 AD-763) and Meidingu Irengba (906-996 AD).
These records according to Dr.V.K.Nuh (2002) “indicates that the Nagas must have occupied the land they presently dwell as late as around 1st to 2nd B.C”. Meidingu Khagemba (15971652 A.D) coined the sobriquet “Haochong, the Western Gate of Manipur." These words were inscribed in two stone slabs (no.1 measuring 40x56 cm & no.2 measuring 47x66) by King Nara Singh (1842-1844 A.D). These two stone tablets were taken to Imphal and kept at Manipur State Museum since 1994 (Andrew,2010). The people of Haochong are a mixture of people who migrated from different directions and villages like Tamphoimwan (East), Inthansom, Kachanmwan, Lenginche (North) and Tangan basung (west), etc.
These records according to Dr.V.K.Nuh (2002) “indicates that the Nagas must have occupied the land they presently dwell as late as around 1st to 2nd B.C”. Meidingu Khagemba (15971652 A.D) coined the sobriquet “Haochong, the Western Gate of Manipur." These words were inscribed in two stone slabs (no.1 measuring 40x56 cm & no.2 measuring 47x66) by King Nara Singh (1842-1844 A.D). These two stone tablets were taken to Imphal and kept at Manipur State Museum since 1994 (Andrew,2010). The people of Haochong are a mixture of people who migrated from different directions and villages like Tamphoimwan (East), Inthansom, Kachanmwan, Lenginche (North) and Tangan basung (west), etc.
The village is one stronghold of Inpui culture and tradition in the area. Even though the village has embraced Christianity yet some age-old cultural traditions are still cultivated and preserved and no one would dare defy such traditions which have bound the society together for generations. The introduction of Christianity was resisted during the initial years, this can be exemplified by the ostracising of the first Christian converts who eventually established the first Christian village in Inpui area i.e. Pungmon village. But the villagers gradually embraced the new religion and in the year 1995, the Haochong church celebrated the Passover.
Haochong village is the largest village both in terms of population and size in Inpui area. It is located 13 kms away from national highway 37 which passes through Noney. And about 47 miles from Imphal, the capital city of Manipur via Kangchup Tamenglong (KT) road which currently is under rapid construction in view of India’s Look East Policy rechristened as Act East Policy funded by Asian Development Bank (ADB). The said ADB highway will pass through Inthan (Waphong), Ijeirong, Bakuwa, and Kabuikhullen.
But till today, Haochong village continues to be the connecting link for the neighboring villages like Khundong, Nurathel, Ijeirong, Puichi, Pungmon, Waphong etc. Haochong village is the centre of transaction for the whole area- Physical Health Centre, Haochong High School, FCS Godown, Branch Post Office, ICDS Anganwadi Centre, Veterinary Dispensary, Sub Deputy Collector upgraded to Sub Divisional Office, defunct office like LAMPS are located in the village. The office of Inpui Naga Union (INU), All Inpui Students’ Union (AISU), Inpui Naga Womens’ Union, Inpui Naga Baptist Churches Association (INBCA), Inpui Literature Society (ILS) and other various registered NGOs are located in the village.
But till today, Haochong village continues to be the connecting link for the neighboring villages like Khundong, Nurathel, Ijeirong, Puichi, Pungmon, Waphong etc. Haochong village is the centre of transaction for the whole area- Physical Health Centre, Haochong High School, FCS Godown, Branch Post Office, ICDS Anganwadi Centre, Veterinary Dispensary, Sub Deputy Collector upgraded to Sub Divisional Office, defunct office like LAMPS are located in the village. The office of Inpui Naga Union (INU), All Inpui Students’ Union (AISU), Inpui Naga Womens’ Union, Inpui Naga Baptist Churches Association (INBCA), Inpui Literature Society (ILS) and other various registered NGOs are located in the village.
Education and Literacy:
frThe village though rich in cultural heritage and traditions were not known to the outside world except for its interaction with the neighboring tribes and few contacts with the Meitei king but by late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century there was contact with the foreigners especially with the Britishers and with the Japanese in the 1940s (World War period). In the past, education was imparted traditionally through the day to day observation. The parents, relatives and the community acted as the transmitter of traditional know-how and not necessarily by the school. And in that process, Morung played a very vital role. The very existence of the village seems to be in the Morung where every known knowledge and expertise were imparted and inculcated to the younger generation, from social etiquettes, manners, various art and craft to how to work and cultivate the field.
Modern education only arrived in the 1920s under the aegis of British officers and a local interpreter. The request to start education institution or government offices (the people were not willing to work in such institutions as their emphasis are on agricultural activities and did not consider government services as means of livelihood. The village elders would go house to house requesting families to give at least one person to take care of the established institutions. The elders would visit those family with more children and some case invite youth who are idle or are disinterested in agriculture activities) were also resisted initially but after many requests and determined persuasion the villagers gave permission to establish a school which was later upgraded to Lower Primary School and Middle English School (the 1950s) later absorbed by the government in 1965.
Finally, it was upgraded to High School by Government of Manipur in 1980. Due to the presence of this institution, the village was once an educational hub in Tamenglong district. Now, Haochong village has the highest number of graduates and the highest number of government employees compared to the surrounding villages. The village also has the highest literacy in Inpui area with a total of 92.33 according to 2011 census.
Finally, it was upgraded to High School by Government of Manipur in 1980. Due to the presence of this institution, the village was once an educational hub in Tamenglong district. Now, Haochong village has the highest number of graduates and the highest number of government employees compared to the surrounding villages. The village also has the highest literacy in Inpui area with a total of 92.33 according to 2011 census.
The establishment of a private funded English medium school known as Rose English School (1977) by some pioneers of the village is worth mentioning. Though the school has stopped functioning yet it has indeed imparted quality education and brought tremendous change on how the villagers view education and the benefits it can endow.
How did the two villages survive for thousands of years?
The answer to the question may lie in the following reasons:
1. Location of the Village:
The villages are located in the hillock overlooking the low lying areas giving a perfect place for settlement and contributed in defending the village from coming enemies where head hunting, inthim raan (hiding war), inter-village, the inter-tribal conflict was commonly practiced. The geographical location of the village, its gentle slope which is not prone to land/ mudslide and rapid erosion also gave the people a sense of security and protection.
The village faces eastward and this also may have contributed to giving the land a favourable climatic condition which is suitable for gardening and plantation. Oranges were said to be its main plantation crop in the village but now different fruits are being introduced and grew for both domestic consumption and marketing. Tribal villages or societies are usually situated in a strategic location like the rugged mountain and inaccessible hilly region which provided them with security and enough providence.
The village faces eastward and this also may have contributed to giving the land a favourable climatic condition which is suitable for gardening and plantation. Oranges were said to be its main plantation crop in the village but now different fruits are being introduced and grew for both domestic consumption and marketing. Tribal villages or societies are usually situated in a strategic location like the rugged mountain and inaccessible hilly region which provided them with security and enough providence.
2. Road Connectivity:
Kabuikhullen due to its remoteness and inaccessibility lacked proper road connection until recent times, unlike Haochong which has easy access to Imphal, the capital city of Manipur and also with the western part of Manipur like Tamenglong, Jiri, etc connecting with mainland India. Through Kangchup Tamenglong road the people established a close and cordial relationship with the neighboring tribes (Zeliangrong, Chiru,Kharam & Kuki) and more importantly with Meitei royals and their culture. The road provided easy access to neighboring villages and towns and helps them in transacting business (barter system was in vogue before money as a means of transactions was introduced).
3. Availability of Water:
The availability of water from different sources particularly village ponds and small springs which is one of the main elements in the establishment of the villages. In the past villagers have two to three waterholes in the lower low lying area of the village which was guarded and protected by the youth. Most of the said water sources have disappeared due to the lack of conservation and preservation efforts.
In Kabuikhullen water sources were confined to village ponds. And there is no other source since it is located on the top of the mountain.
But in Haochong the case is different even after the village expanded the villagers have new water sources to meet the needs of the ever-increasing water demand and supply. Today, iron & plastic pipes are used to draw water and provide water connection to every household in the village.
4. Availability of Resources:
The vast land area of the erstwhile undivided Haochong and the availability of other natural resources like plants and animals (flora & fauna) in the village have sustained the people for generations. Various animals like civet cats, stag, fish, deer, wild boar, bear, porcupine, squirrel, vulture, eagle, hornbill, peacock were in abundance but due to excessive exploitation of resources like unregulated hunting, jhum cultivation, etc, the resources have dwindled and some are believed to be extinct or force to migrate to other hospitable regions.
The village even after its division into four villages which includes Nungtek I & II, Pungmon and Makhwam continue to provide the much-needed resources till today. Due to the above factor, the village also attracted people from other tribes to come and settled in Haochong, assimilating into Inpui culture and taking their identity.
The village even after its division into four villages which includes Nungtek I & II, Pungmon and Makhwam continue to provide the much-needed resources till today. Due to the above factor, the village also attracted people from other tribes to come and settled in Haochong, assimilating into Inpui culture and taking their identity.
There are astounding similarities in terms of its size, geographical location and availability of resources between Kabuikhullen and Haochong. As Kabuikhullen was divided into two old and New Kabuikhullen with Tamsamwan, a small colony in the middle.
5. Fertility of the Soil:
What one might overlook is the fertility of the soil. The village has rich forest cover which when slashed and burn gives a favorable condition for any plants or vegetables to grow. The productivity as compared to the past has been decreasing yet almost every area of the village is still cultivated to produce necessary food and providence even to the extent of marketing the surplus produced.
6. Social Systems/Strict Values & Norms: The political system though in rudimentary form has safeguarded the villages. The villagers have a strong adherence to customary norms and values. Though this may sound absurd to some deeper studies in the social system reveal a much deeper answer which gives an insight as to how a village can survive for so long without disintegrating. The norms and values cultivated can be counted as a strong factor for the sustenance of the village till today.
The village has strong cultural ethics and values which every person in the village feared and respected. The inclusion of a person to the village may be welcome but migration from the village to the other is a long and tedious process. The fears of losing one’s traditionally own land and property may have also have contributed to their dilemma of deserting the village.
The village has strong cultural ethics and values which every person in the village feared and respected. The inclusion of a person to the village may be welcome but migration from the village to the other is a long and tedious process. The fears of losing one’s traditionally own land and property may have also have contributed to their dilemma of deserting the village.
Apart from it, the physical structure of the people was believed to be more sturdy and well built than today and this must also be an intimidating factor when it comes to dispute and warfare.
7. Spaces for expansion:
Here Haochong has a better scope for expansion due to its gentler slope and availability of water. But for Kabuikhullen, there is no scope for further expansion which leads to the establishment of New Kabuikhullen and Tamsamwan (though economic factor played a vital role in this movement but lack of space for the new household can be a contributing factor). With Kabuikhullen desertion Haochong can be safely considered as the oldest continuously settled Inpui village.
Reasons for desertion of Kabuikhullen Proper
There are numerous factors contributing to the complete desertion of the village. Some points are briefly highlighted here:
i) Earthquake: The main reason was the 6.7 magnitude (January 4) earthquake that rocked the entire North East India with Kabuikhullen as the epicenter. According to my assumption, Kabuikhullen was affected the most since the village has been in existence for a very long time. There will be pressure on the land due to continuous human settlement for generations as there was no scope for further extension or movement within the vicinity of the village.
ii) Precautionary Measures: According to the scientist and geologist who came to assess the situation warned that the soil underneath the village might become unstable during the monsoon knowing how old the village has been settled. This precaution was taken too seriously and the crack that opens up from the village down to the western flank of the village boundary added more fear to their existing dilemma. the warning if any was given to look out for temporary location and resettle again and not complete desertion.
iii) Water: During the month of January (winter dry season), water is scarce in the area not only in Kabuikhullen. The earthquake further led to the decrease in flow of water which was not able to meet the domestic consumption of the existing household plus the visitors.
iv) Fear factor: In an idle peaceful village, such creation of fear confounded them and every new visitor tell different things and no positive energy was generated.
v) Remoteness: Though a motorable road has connected the village to the rest of the world (usable only during the dry season, in monsoon it is usually blocked due to landslide and mudslide). The distance from the market and unavailability of basic needs in the village has made the visitor advice them to move out. Electricity supply was erratic as well. But one can mention here that the Inpui has been self-sustaining without outside interference since time immemorial.
vi) Compensation factor: The lure for schemes, compensation, loans, aid in both form money and material assistance was a contributing factor. People were so concern as their granaries and their house were destroyed and as the villagers are cultivators, the time to clear the jungle for new jhum cultivation was almost over. People have to rely on government schemes and other aid.
vii) Asian Development Bank (ADB) highway: People were of the assumption that ADB road which will pass through the village will definitely pull them out from these messes (here they are not poor). But with no resources at their disposal as the new location has little or no available resources the people have to face some inherent conflict due to competition for resources. More than half of the village resources lie on the other side of the mountain i.e the western flank of the village.
Important historical sites of the two villages:
a) Kabuikhullen
1. Kabuikhullen Foundation stone: This stone remains in the central part of the village which is about 3 feet. The first group of settlers after finalizing to live in the present area decided to erect a stone for its commemoration.
2. Inkou rwan lan inkam riak: The Inkou (Burmese/Kuki) settled in different parts of Inpui areas after seeking permission by paying a nominal annual tax in the form of paddy and other material things. Before vacating their settlement, one stone, in particular, was inserted in rock cliff by curbing. People believed this stone to be where wealth is hidden. Recently this stone was broke open by using bombs.
3. Kadai riak: Playground use by villagers since time immemorial.
4. Liamtwang(hero) stone: There is one stone referred to as Liamtwang Lungsom (hero monolith).
5. Gate (Kapan): There are four gates (Khouriang , Kasiangmwan, Ripun kapan, kapan thwei).
6. Village Ponds: These village ponds have its cultural and historical significance as their very existence rest on these sources. There are four ponds namely Khoriang (used to bathe newborn babies), Kapan thwei tuikhun, Kamang tuikhun, kapan tuikhun and tuiswan tuikhun.
7. Stone erected by Meitei king in commemoration of his visit to the villages.
8. The village was once covered with stones tablets used as a memorial for the deceased and for other purpose and according to the villager these stones were kept on both side of the main road which divides the village into two. But only a few existed today.
9. Tuilut waterfall: Around 20 feet approximately.
10. Local Deities: Horiangnu inmi, riskwa nu in.
11. Inkou inphung: This refers to a deserted village settlement by Inkou (Burmese). Due to such ancient settlement, the Kukis claim that the whole of Inpui areas as their territory.
12. Uichok lung kwa: There seems to exist some mystical place in the village where people collect inks to draw on the carved wooden panel of Takaan House. This process of collection was only undertaken by the brave who have collected most heads. Uichok lungkwa is one of them.
13. Katang Rangaak Badung riak: This is a secluded place referred to as lovers corner with stone slabs for sitting.
14. Church Monuments: a) Passover Stone (22 Feb. 1989)
b) Golden Jubilee Stone (8-10 January 2010)
It may be noted here that due to the desertion of the village, everything associated with the village and the church will become very significant if it’s not resettled. Here the need to preserve the historical monuments will be felt more than ever before. The students union and youths of the village should take up steps to preserve it for posterity. As the new settlement is about 5 to 7 kilometres from the proper Kabuikhullen the burden to shoulder this new responsibility will fall on Tamsamwan village (yet to be recognized by the government) which has about eleven households around 2 km walk from the village. Tamsmwan has no basic infrastructure (primary school or health centre) as they were attached to old Kabuikhullen.
b) Haochong:
1. Ramah nu Inkamriak (Queen Hiding Place):
It is the best known historical site maintained by HSO. The rock cliff was once used by the villagers to hide queen Kumudini of Manipur and his son Prince Chandrakirti who were on their way to Cachar in Assam to escape a war. The place is about 4 km from the village.
2. Bok Inkamriak:
3. Ramahnu Kehiak (Queen Footprint):
This is believed to be the footprint of Meitei Queen. It is curbed out in stone slab which is on the way to Ramahnu inkamriak.
4. Helipad:
Referred to as the pinnacle of the village as it lies on one of the highest points in the village. The helipad was constructed to be used as a camp by Manipur Rifles and CRPF since 1969 but vacated on 11 February 1979.
5. Village Ponds, Inkou Pond: There are around four ponds in the village which some of them are still used but as the village water supply has become sufficient these village ponds have lost its values. The Inkou Tuikhun (pond) was once the salt producing pond and according to legend the Meitei king thinking this self-production will affect trade between Haochong and Meiteis did some magic and thereby stop the production.
6. Antrimwanbut:
The highest mountain peak and pride of Inpui area is located in about 10 km from the village. If you like trekking through the jungle and sleeping under the wild canopy than this is the right place.
7. Lungkhok: There are curbed footprint and dao images in a place called Lungkhok about two kilometers from Haochong.
8. Stone Bridge/footpath: These remains are one left without much attention, such stone bridges were common and according to oral history the sounds of the footstep were counted for launching an attack. The most remarkable stone bridges are near Lampakpui and others in Tuikhui road.
9. Village Gates: Two prominent village gates are still in good condition.
10. Old Village Settlement Sites: Haochong village as stated above is one of the oldest villages so you can expect to find many historical ruins, ranging from old village sites to village gates in the east and north. The sites are filled with ruins like kadai riak (places where villagers entertain themselves by playing games, though the once vast expanse of land has shrunk but it still gives an insight to the historical settings), Karung riak (where meetings were held), katang rangaak mising lung (youth population), Rishang in where traditional rituals and rites took place and others such as Lianbong Lung Kasin, Katang lampui, Lamuiba Inka Lungsom, Ramahnu kehiak (footprints of Queen), Kaji khun (where salt was produced) not necessarily located in the same area are prominent cultural heritage. The old settlement site is filled with stones slab many of which were brought from the different area of the village. It is also a perfect place to watch the setting sun goes down the horizon. The above sites are preserved and protected by Haochong Village Authority (HVA). Haochong Students Organization (HSO) and Haochong Youth Club (HYC).
Quick Facts of Haochong:
1. Neighbouring villages- Khumji (Lukhambi), Nagaching (Nganchiang), Pungmon, Ijeirong (Tuilimon), Nungtek I & II, Makhwam (Marangching) & Oktan (Puichi).
2. It is the centre of Inpui tribe where major tribal apex body offices are located.
3. Rivers- Iring (Lingkwa), Ijei (Ra ah) and their tributaries like Tuipuikwa, Sensi kwang, Nungrakwa, etc.
4. Population of the village-1235 (As per 2011 Census).
5. Literacy of the village- 92.33, Male-94.23%, Female- 90.28%
6. Major clans- Bariam (Bariamtak/Bariampaan), Inka (Inkah kasak/ Inka kathwei) & Khumba.
7. Many of the villagers have migrated to different parts of Manipur (Tamenglong, Senapati, Khoupum, Logmai, Pantilong, Yurembam, Tamphagei, Sagolband, Ragailong, Majorkhul,etc), Mizoram and Nagaland ( Jalukie, Samziuram, Dimapur, Kohima).
Quick Facts of Kabuikhullen:
1. Neighboring villages-Thingra, Nagaching, Duilwan, Swanpram, Bakuwa, Puichi, Khundong, Bhalok.
2. It is considered to be the oldest Inpui village.
3. Important Rivers: Tuilang, Lingkwa and their tributaries Hungkwa, Ramrikwa, Khusungkwa
4. Population of the village-997 (2011 census).
5. Literacy rate-46.06, Male-47.91% , Female 44.24%
6. Major clans: Bariam, Inka, Balang, Onruan , Riamrweirwan,
7. Many of the villagers have migrated and settled in Tamenglong headquarter, Senapati, Makuilongdi, Swanpram, Nungtek, Noney.
Concluding remarks:
With the oral tradition fading away in the shadow of modernity and the lack of written historical accounts pose a serious challenge in preserving and sustaining the rich historical and cultural identity. The following song recalls the sadness of revisiting an old village aptly sang at Kabuikhullen (the original composer and author is unknown). “Namlui ding hungmu lu tajini balungsia ye chap zinglu ongme, arwei takhui tak e nanglian tonlu pondinga , tonlu balat hung lat rizo”. The loss of memories is the dead-end of literary and historical know how in the tribal context. This concern is raised since the mortality rate of elders in almost every Inpui villages is disheartening. And apart from the loss of historical and cultural monuments, there arise new challenges particularly in Kabuikhullen due to the shifting of the entire household to a new site which is located on the other end of the village (eastern side bordering Khundong).
And since the majority of the resources are on the other end (western), a place for jhum cultivation, rearing mithun and accessing Tuilang river resources will be a challenge. The lack of clear demarcation of village boundaries, conflicts have arisen even in the past due to illegal extraction of resources and now as the entire population has deserted the land to a distant location there is a clear indication that such inter-village rivalry will emerge again. Some of the villagers have shown interest to return to the old village site to resettle but not too soon. Some were more willing to settle in Tamsamwan which provide better accessibility to the land resources than the new location. This might become more pronounced once the aid and schemes in the name of earthquake victims cease and non-availability of land for cultivation as a result of an overcrowded population.
In regards to the protection of resources and other cultural entities civil organizations in Haochong like Haochong Students Organization (HSO), Haochong Youth Club (HYC) are active and contributing their bits in such attempts, in doing so the villagers are conscious of preserving and promoting historical and cultural heritage which seems to be lacking in Kabuikhullen.
This is evident in the destruction of almost all the historical heritages like stone monuments (as told to the author, were used in school construction and private house construction), no cultural heritage worth preserving is visible except some handicraft and woodwork. The log drums, musical instruments, cultural attires and other critical elements of identity were either given to outsiders for free or for some insignificant amount or burn to ashes due to supposed fear of God wrath which was common when Christianity first set a foothold in the hills.
It can also remember that it was not modern education that sustains our history and culture but adherence to cultural norms and values and blessed with enough self-sustainable resources. But this symbiotic relations have started to change and will change. In order to cope with the fast-changing social and natural environment certain steps need to outline such as mass awareness of the importance in preserving cultural heritage and cultivating the traditional norms and value if it didn’t contradict with the Christian modern ethics, felling of trees for an unnecessary purpose has to be curtailed, alternatives to jhum cultivation like businesses, wet water field cultivation, market-based farm, excessive hunting should be regulated, etc.
And since the majority of the resources are on the other end (western), a place for jhum cultivation, rearing mithun and accessing Tuilang river resources will be a challenge. The lack of clear demarcation of village boundaries, conflicts have arisen even in the past due to illegal extraction of resources and now as the entire population has deserted the land to a distant location there is a clear indication that such inter-village rivalry will emerge again. Some of the villagers have shown interest to return to the old village site to resettle but not too soon. Some were more willing to settle in Tamsamwan which provide better accessibility to the land resources than the new location. This might become more pronounced once the aid and schemes in the name of earthquake victims cease and non-availability of land for cultivation as a result of an overcrowded population.
In regards to the protection of resources and other cultural entities civil organizations in Haochong like Haochong Students Organization (HSO), Haochong Youth Club (HYC) are active and contributing their bits in such attempts, in doing so the villagers are conscious of preserving and promoting historical and cultural heritage which seems to be lacking in Kabuikhullen.
This is evident in the destruction of almost all the historical heritages like stone monuments (as told to the author, were used in school construction and private house construction), no cultural heritage worth preserving is visible except some handicraft and woodwork. The log drums, musical instruments, cultural attires and other critical elements of identity were either given to outsiders for free or for some insignificant amount or burn to ashes due to supposed fear of God wrath which was common when Christianity first set a foothold in the hills.
It can also remember that it was not modern education that sustains our history and culture but adherence to cultural norms and values and blessed with enough self-sustainable resources. But this symbiotic relations have started to change and will change. In order to cope with the fast-changing social and natural environment certain steps need to outline such as mass awareness of the importance in preserving cultural heritage and cultivating the traditional norms and value if it didn’t contradict with the Christian modern ethics, felling of trees for an unnecessary purpose has to be curtailed, alternatives to jhum cultivation like businesses, wet water field cultivation, market-based farm, excessive hunting should be regulated, etc.
Notes & References
1. Achun, N.K(1995), Souvenir Diamond Jubilee(KINBA 1927-1995)
2. Khumba, Alung (2002), A seminal presentation on the theme ‘Origin of 7 Brothers of Inpui, Kharam, Liangmei, Maram, Rongmei, Thangal and Zeme’.
3. Bariampaan, Andrew(2010), The origin of Inpui Tribe and their culture.
4. Khumba Lazarus (1995), Souvenir Passover Celebration, Haochong Baptist Church.
5. Souvenir Golden Jubilee Celebration (2009). Haochong Baptist Church
6. Nuh, V.V (2002), The Origin of Naga, Vision Press, Kohima
7. Hussain,Majid (1988), Nagaland, Habitat, Society and Shifting Cultivation, Rima Publishing House, New Delhi
8. Hodson, T.C (1911), The Naga Tribe of Manipur
9. Shimmi, Roland ,Y.l (1988), Comparative history of the Nagas From Ancient Period till 1826, Inter India Publications, New Delhi
10. Inkah, Sachoiba (2015), Inpui culture and identity: Continuity and change, Kalakwanbaaang, Pp. 4.
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